Northeast Caucasian languages

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Northeast Caucasian Nakh(o)-Dag(h)estanian, Caspian
Geographic distribution:	Caucasus
Genetic classification:	Alarodian ? North Caucasian ?  Northeast Caucasian
Subdivisions:	Nakh Avar-Andi Tsezic (Didoic) Lak Dargin Khinalug Lezgic
Nakh      Avar-Andi and Tsezic      Dargin      Lak      Lezgic and Khinalug

The Northeast Caucasian languages, also called East Caucasian, Caspian, or Nakh(o)-Dag(h)estanian, are a family of languages spoken in the Russian republics of Dagestan, Chechnya, and Ingushetia, in northern Azerbaijan, and in Georgia, as well as in diaspora populations.

Contents 1 Name of the family 2 Linguistic features 2.1 Phonology 2.2 Morphology 3 Language classification 3.1 Nakh family 3.2 Avar-Andi family 3.2.1 Avar-Andi family tree 3.3 Tsezic (Didoic) family 3.4 Lak isolate 3.5 Dargi (Dargin) dialect continuum 3.6 Khinalug (Xinalug) isolate 3.7 Lezgic family 3.7.1 Lezgic family tree 4 Connections to other families 4.1 North Caucasian family 4.2 Connections to Hurrian and Urartian 5 Agricultural vocabulary 6 Footnotes 7 References 8 See also 9 External links

[edit] Name of the family

Several names have been in use for this family, a situation which might seem confusing to both linguists and non-linguists. The rare term Caspian (i.e. of the Caspian Sea) is only used in opposition to Pontic (i.e. of the Black Sea), or Northwest Caucasian, but even here it has been retreating from the academic discourse. The denotation Nakh-Dagestanian (also Nakh-Daghestanian, Nakho-Dagestanian, or Nakho-Daghestanian) has implied that the primary split is between Nakh and the rest of the family, a view which is no longer uniformly accepted today. East Caucasian in itself would seem to suffice, but as there is also the Kartvelian language family, called South Caucasian by another name, the term Northeast Caucasian is preferred by many linguists for the sake of clarity and neutrality, especially with respect to various hypotheses of internal or external classification.

[edit] Linguistic features

[edit] Phonology

This family is known for the complex phonology (up to 60 consonants or up to 30 vowels in some languages).

[edit] Morphology

These languages can be characterized by strong suffixal agglutination. Weak tendencies towards inflexion may be noted as well. Nouns display covert nominal classification, but partially overt cases of secondary origin can be observed too; classes in individual languages range from two up to eight. As to the grammatical number, opposition between the singular and plural (which can be classifying to some extent) and, sometimes, the collective is seen. Many languages distinguish local versus functional cases, to some degree also casus rectus versus casus obliquus. The inflexional paradigms are often based on, partially-classifying, productive stem extensions (absolutive, oblique, ergative, and genitive flexion). Localization is mostly conveyed by postpositions, but it can be also partly based on preverbs. Noun phrases exhibit incomplete class agreement, group inflexion (on the noun) with partial attributive oblique marking, which may, in turn, carry a partially determining function.

[edit] Language classification

Traditional classification (Nichols 2003)

Latest attempt at internal classification (Schulze 2009)

Branching without relative chronology (Schulze 2009)

A schematic comparison of the two classificatory models

There are two competing models of internal classification of the family. The traditional one assumes that the family is split into two branches: Nakh and Dagestanian (whence the term Nakho-Dagestanian)^[1]. However, latest attempts at reconstructing the protolanguage suggest that the Nakh languages may be no more divergent than the other branches of Dagestanian.^[2] The following tree, based on the work of linguist Bernard Comrie and others, has been adopted by Ethnologue. Population data is from Ethnologue 15th ed.

[edit] Nakh family

Spoken in Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Georgia. Chechen and Ingush are official languages of their respective republics.

• 1. Batsbi (Bats) (3400 speakers)
• 2. Veinakh languages
  • 2.1. Chechen (1,360,000 in Russia in 2002)
  • 2.2. Ingush (450,000 in Russia in 2002)

[edit] Avar-Andi family

Spoken in the Northwest Dagestan highlands and western Dagestan. Avar is the lingua franca for these and the Tsez languages, and the only literary language.

[edit] Avar-Andi family tree

• 1. Avar (600,000 speakers)
• 2. Andi languages
  • 2.1. Andi (Qwannab) (10,000)
  • 2.2. (Akhvakh-Tindi)
    • 2.2.1. (Karata-Tindi)
      • 2.2.1.1. (Botlikh-Tindi)
        • 2.2.1.1.1. Botlikh (Botlix) (5000)
        • 2.2.1.1.2. Ghodoberi (3000)
        • 2.2.1.1.3. Chamalal (5000)
        • 2.2.1.1.4. (Bagvalal-Tindi)
          • 2.2.1.1.4.1. Bagvalal (Kvanada) (2000)
          • 2.2.1.1.4.2. Tindi (Tindal) (6700)
      • 2.2.1.2. Karata (Kirdi) (5000)
    • 2.2.2. Akhvakh (Axvax) (3500)

[edit] Tsezic (Didoic) family

Spoken mostly in Southwest Dagestan. None are literary languages. Formerly classified geographically as East Tsezic (Hinukh, Bezta) and West Tsezic (Tsez, Khwarshi, Hunzib), these languages may form different subgroupings according to the latest research:

• 1. (Tsez-Hinukh)
  • 1.1 Tsez (Dido) (15,000)
  • 1.2 Hinukh (Hinux, Ginukh) (200 speakers)
• 2. (Bezhta-Hunzib-Khwarshi)
  • 2.1. Bezhta (Kapuch) (5,000)
  • 2.2. Hunzib (Gunzib) (2,000)
  • 2.3. Khwarshi (Khvarshi, Xvarsh) (3,000)

[edit] Lak isolate

Spoken in the Central Dagestan highlands. Lak is a literary language.

• Lak (120,000 speakers)

[edit] Dargi (Dargin) dialect continuum

Spoken by 370,000 in the Central Dagestan highlands. Dargwa proper is a literary language.

• Dargwa (Dargva)
• Kajtag
• Kubachi
• Itsari
• Chirag

[edit] Khinalug (Xinalug) isolate

Spoken in northern Azerbaijan.

• Khinalug (Xinalug) (2000 speakers)

[edit] Lezgic family

Spoken in the Southeast Dagestan highlands and in Northern Azerbaijan. The Lezgian language or, as the Lezgins call it themselves - Лезги чlал (lezgi ch'al) is the biggest, in terms of the number of native speakers, of all the languages of the Lezgic group (other languages from this group include Tabasaran, Udi, Tsakhur, and Rutul - Tabasaran was once thought to be the language with the largest number of grammatical cases at 54, which could – depending on the analysis – as well be the Tsez language with 64). The Lezgic family along with a couple of other families (Avaro-Ando-Tsez, Lakh, Dargin) forms the Daghestanian part of the Nakh-Daghestanian language family (the Nakh part is constituted by Chechen, Ingush and related small languages).

Lezgian and Tabassaran are literary languages.

[edit] Lezgic family tree

• 1. Peripheral: Archi (1000 speakers)
• 2. Samur (or Nuclear Lezgian)
  • 2.1 Eastern Samur
    • 2.1.1 Tabasaran (96,000)
    • 2.1.2 Lezgian (450,000)
    • 2.1.3 Aghul (17,400)
    • 2.1.4 Caucasian Albanian → Udi (5700)
  • 2.2. Southern Samur
    • 2.2.1 Kryts (6000 in 1975)
    • 2.2.2 Budukh (1000)
  • 2.3. Western Samur
    • 2.3.1 Rutul (20,000)
    • 2.3.2 Tsakhur (20,073)

[edit] Connections to other families

[edit] North Caucasian family

Many linguists think that the Northeast and Northwest Caucasian languages should be joined into a putative North Caucasian family, sometimes called Caucasic or Caucasian (even though it is not meant to include the South Caucasian (Kartvelian) family). However, this hypothesis is not well demonstrated.

[edit] Connections to Hurrian and Urartian

Some linguists — notably I. M. Diakonoff and S. Starostin — also see similarities between the Northeast Caucasian family and the extinct languages Hurrian and Urartian. Hurrian was spoken in various parts of the Fertile Crescent in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. Urartian was the language of Urartu, a powerful state centered in the area of Lake Van in Turkey, that existed between 1000 BC or earlier and 585 BC.

The two extinct languages have been grouped into the Hurro-Urartian family. Diakonoff proposed the name Alarodian for the union of Hurro-Urartian and Northeast Caucasian.

[edit] Agricultural vocabulary

The Proto-Northeast Caucasian language had many terms for agriculture, and Johanna Nichols has suggested that its speakers may have been involved in the development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent.^[3] They had words for concepts such as yoke, as well as fruit trees such as apple and pear that suggest agriculture was already well developed when the proto-language broke up.

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Languages of the Caucasus

[edit] External links

• CIA linguistic map of the Caucasus
• Ethnologue: North Caucasian, Northeast